2. How can I tell an original cast iron toy from a replica?   Don't feel bad if you have trouble telling them apart.  I've seen replicas with large price tags in antique stores, so sometimes even those who should know are fooled.  There are several important ways that you can often tell the difference.  These tips won't catch a determined forger; but they will help you tell the obvious copies.  The ways are as follows:  A-Original pieces were hand assembled.  Toys were often expensive so the craftsmen of the time took care to ensure that their toys looked good.  Any excess flash, misalignment, warped castings, incomplete castings and body filler are dead giveaways.  Also, originals were held together with slotted screws, rivets, and correct length bolts.  If the toy is fastened with phillips head screws, too long, or too small bolts, all-thread, or brazed together then it is most likely a replica.   B-Originals had a better level of detail in casting and paint.  The original toy manufacturers used very fine sand which rendered crisp detail.  Replicas usually use coarser sand; so not only is the detail lost, but a pebbled surface often results.  Replicas very rarely have  those little quality extras such as plated parts, padded seats or real rubber tires like some originals did. The paint and trim on the originals was applied much more neatly; look especially at the faces.  Also, originals, even new old stock, will show some fading and wear at the points it has rubbed on the box.  If the paint is bright and flawless, then the item is probably a copy or has been restored.  One last tip:  just because it has been in the family for years does not mean it is an original piece.  There were many reproductions made in the 50s, and 70s, as well as the modern ones.

3. What is meant by "Live Steam"?  When people say that an engine or toy is live steam they mean that the thing actually uses real steam for its operation rather than just being a representation of a steam engine powered by electricity or some other means.  Simply put, the locomotive, boat, or whatever, uses a flame or other heat source to boil water in an enclosed space, it then uses the difference in pressure between the generated steam and the outside air to provide propulsion by moving a piston, rotor, or in its simplest form the resistance of another fluid such as air or water.

4. What is meant by a "code" boiler? A code boiler is one that has been constructed in compliance to a set of rules, and safety based calculations. There are 2 major codes in use in the US, the official ASME code overseen by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers , and the un official, but often used (for models) IBLS  standard, written by the International Brotherhood of  Live Steamers.

Both standards have merits, but the ASME code is the required legal standard in most states. The ASME rules were instituted near the turn of the century, after a series of catastrophic boiler failures, to ensure minimum construction requirements . This code has been expanded over the years to cover all kinds of pressure carrying vessels. The ASME code has been adopted as the official regulatory code by most states in the US; however, their individual enforcement policies vary.

The ASME code sets rules for materials and  procedures, formulas for thickness and other mechanical design criteria. The ASME also certifies the shops that these pressure vessels are constructed in, and even the people who do the work. The ASME issues the shop a Stamp with a letter designating which of the major code sections and procedures that the shop is allowed to perform. Having a code stamp on the boiler means that it was constructed in an authorized shop, using the proper procedures, is to be considered safe to operate; and that the shop  that built it carries the necessary liability insurance should something go wrong.

Having a code stamp does not however automatically mean that the boiler has an efficient design, steams well, is easy to fire, clean or maintain, is suitable for the use you have in mind or anything else. It just means that it should not fail (i.e. blow up) under normal conditions.

The various elements  of the ASME code are presented in a multi-volume set of books that are updated yearly.  The various ASME calculations and their certification procedures are often very complicated, tedious, require extensive cross referencing and sometimes even conflict with the answers from another part of the design process. This leads many people who have to work with it to refer to the process as Always, Sometimes, Maybe, Except.  There are currently computer programs on the market designed to do many of the calculations automatically, but these are expensive.

The ASME, the American Welding Society, and the American Petroleum Institute, which are the authors of the 3 major welding codes in the US are currently working on a simplified, unified code to cover all welded construction, including boilers. When (or if) these new rules are ratified it may become easier to obtain certification for a model boiler, until then there  probably will be many non-code boilers built.

5. Why are steam engines so expensive? First, we must have a reasonable level of comparison.  Rather than comparing the cost of a steam engine to the cost of a mass produced, injection molded neon plastic doohickey, compare it, instead to the cost of a handmade dollhouse, or other fine model.  Steam engines are by necessity made mostly of metals, usually some combination of steel, copper, and brass.  They also are fairly labor intensive in their construction.  The parts of a steam engine must be machined, inspected, assembled, and safety tested. It is the inspection,  regulatory  and insurance costs that adds the most to larger American made models  Often you can save money by purchasing a kit, either way, stop a moment and think about this question . . .  What is your time worth? Remember, in general, you will get what you pay for.

You can get started for as little as $6 for a Putt-Putt candle steamboat that will last for about 40 hours running time, or about $150-$500 for a simple, if inefficient, toy-type steam engine with an externally fired, or "pot" boiler, that will, with reasonable care, last for 10 or more years.   If you wish to spend more then you can get an what is in essence an exact, if reduced scale, reproduction of a full sized engine.

6. How does a steam engine work?  We have a short film, courtesy of one of our suppliers.   Press start to view.   Note: This item takes some time to download .

If you are unable to view the movie, this diagram may help to answer your question.

7.Why is railroad "standard "gauge 4' 8-1/2"? Isn't that an odd size? The story goes that the guage was an import from our European heritage, where it was the width for wagons. This standard goes clear back to the Imperial Roman war chariot ...proving , beyond a doubt, that beauracracy does live forever!

8. When laying my railroad outside, What are "sun kinks" and how do I prevent them? Sun kinks are caused by the thermal expansion of the metal rain when exposed to the sun. There is no way to prevent this expansion, but there are ways to minimise the effects. The amount of thermal expansion (creep) will vary by  the material used. In steel this change is about .06" over10 feet with a 75 degree change in temperature. Aluminum has an expansion rate of about twice that.
Sun kinks occur when the rail has no where to expand so it moves laterally, making a bend in the rail. There are three simple ways in which to mimimise the effects of thermal expansion:
Lay the rail at the temperature that is midway between the expected  temperature extremes (in most places in the US this means at about 70-80 degrees.)
Leave  room for expansion at the joints. This amount,per 10 feet of rail, as shown above is +/- 1/32" for steel, and 1/16 " for aluminum.
Ballast the curves, leaving the ends of the ties uncovered so that the track can shift in and out without binding.
If a sun kink does start to develop. you can often slow the damage by cooling the rail with water. You will, however, need to make some changes in that section of track to allow for expansion in the future.

8. I've  heard that the railroads use train whistles to 'talk', What do the signals mean?  The  railroads used a system of whistle, hand, and lamp signals to communicated before the use of radio became common.  We found an original rulebook for the  Operations Department of the New York Central , Effective Sept 1937, in a used book store.Some of the signals that they used are as follows:( Please note; it is illegal dangerous, and extremely stupid to interfere with a railroads operations, these signals are supplied for reference ONLY!)

Whistle Signals:    ~ = long sound,  o = short sound:   o = apply brakes, stop,    ~ ~ = release brakes, proceed,   ~ooo = Flagman protect rear of train,   ~ ~ ~ ~ = Flagman return W or S,  ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ = Flagman return E or N,  ~ ~ ~ = Train parted,   ~oo = To call attention to signals for a following section,  oo = Answer to ~oo  or any signal not otherwise provided for,  ooo = When standing, back,  oooo = call for signals,   ~ ~o~ = Approaching public crossings at grade, repeat until grade is reached ,   o~ = Inspect train for leaks/sticking brakes,   ~o = running against traffic approaching a curve or station, ~~~~~ = Approaching stations, junctions, and crossings,  oo~o = Relief engine required,  ooo~ = Flagman protect ahead, ~ ~o = approaching meeting or waiting point,  oooooooooo = alarm for persons or livestock on track,

Other railroad signals:
Color Signals:  Red = Stop, Yellow = Proceed at restricted speed, Green/White = Flag stop, White = a.Yard switch, b.track pan lower scoop, Blue = Track pan raise scoop, Red or Purple dwarf signal = Stop, siding derail
Hand, Flag or Lantern Signals:     Waist level, back and forth = Stop,  Held to side at arms length = Reduce speed,  Raise & Lower Vertically in Front = Proceed,  Small Circle in Front = When standing, back,  Large Circle in Front = Train has parted,  Back & Forth Above Head = Apply Brakes, Hold at Arms Length above Head = Release brakes,  Hold nose & point to track, swing lamp in small vertical circles = Hot Journal,  Raise & Lower Slowly, Arms Length, to Side = Car door swinging,  Push In and Out From Body, Brakes sticking,  Palms together in horizontal position / Lamp Horizontal at Arms Length = Flat wheel

9. Didn't Threshermen and Traction Engineers also use whistle signals? Yes, we have the following courtesy of the J.I.Case company.
   ~~ =  location of working place, work day about to start,  oo = engine about to start,   o = engine about to stop,  ooo = grain haulers, bundle carriers hurry,  ~ooo = water carriers hurry,  ~ ~ = work day done,
oooooooooo = something no one wanted to hear, FIRE!, serious injury or some other dangerous situation.